Exam Short Answer Practice

*keep in mind I may add more questions prior to an exam; NO LESS THAN 5 days prior (you will have at least 5 days before the exam to see new questions if they are added)

1. a)What's the difference between potential and kintetic energy? b)List the 3 forms of stored energy (ways that energy can be stored) that we discussed in class (this goes into Ch.3). c)Name high energy molecule cells use directly to do work. d)How does the cell release energy from that molecule? e)Define/describe an acid, a base, and a buffer. f)Provide an example of a buffer commonly produced/used our bodies. g)Why are buffers important in the bodies of animals?

2. a) List the major categories of organic macromolecules; which is fat-soluble? b)Which is composed of long folded chains of amino acids? c)Which includes polysaccharides and monosaccharides?

3. Fred the goblet cell has just produced 100s of molecules of mucin, a very large protein. Fred wants to export these mucin proteins into your nasal cavity all at once. Mary the neuron is busy moving Na+ ions out and K+ ions in at the same time, against their concentration gradients. Roberta the Red Blood Cell has just entered a capillary in the lungs, where she will be surrounded by an interstitium very concentrate with O2. Roberta "wants" to bring O2 in. Horton the muscle cell wants to bring some Na+ ions in, this will help him contract. And finally, Melissa the macrophage is chasing down a bacterium that she wants to ingest and destroy. Name the mechanism and explain how each of these cells will move these materials into or out of themselves (if you choose facilitated diffusion, you do not need to differentiate between carriers and channels for this question). Be sure to note whether they will need to use ATP to do so.

4. Define/describe diffusion. Is energy input required for simple diffusion to occur? Why does diffusion occur (why do we see movement in the direction we do)? List 3 factors that can affect the rate of diffusion; be sure to describe how each factor affects diffusion rates. What's osmosis? Why do cells shrink when placed in salt water (explain this using the terms "hypotonic" and "hypertonic")? Why don't Na+ and Cl- simply diffuse into the cell?

5. List and briefly describe each of the mechanisms for getting stuff into & out of cells. Be sure to mention which require energy, and which do not. For each mechanism, provide an example of a substance which is commonly transported via that mechanism. How do adjacent cells communicate directly with each other, and "share" nutrients/chemicals? Which mechanism do merocrine gland cells use? Melanocytes?

6. Describe and diagram mitosis. Be sure to label all of the steps, and explain what is occuring during each of those steps. What are three things that are occuring during Interphase?

6. Briefly describe how the instructions for making a protein get to a ribosome, and what will happen at the ribosome to make the protein. This particular protein will be exported from the cell, so it will be produced by a ribosome on the rough ER. Now, follow the fate of this newly made protein from the rough ER, describing what will happen to it next and how it will get out of the cell.

7. Describe the 4 levels of protein structure. What is protein denaturation, and what are two factors that could cause a protein to denature? List 5 specific roles of proteins in the body (not just in cell membranes) we've discussed.

8. List and briefly describe the general functions of the 4 categories of tissues. Describe 3 ways that adjacent cells may be bound together.

9. List and briefly describe the structure and function of each of the organelles (membrane- and non-membrane bound) we discussed.

10. For the body slices, cavities and locations, focus on:

-cephalic, cervical, thoracic, brachial, carpal, abdominal, lumbar, gluteal, pelvic, pubic, inguinal, femoral, tarsal

-anterior, ventral, posterior, dorsal, cranial, superior, inferior, medial, lateral, proximal, distal, superficial, deep

-frontal plane, sagittal plane, transverse plane

-thoracic cavity, pericaridial cavity, pleural cavities, abdominopelvic cavity, abdominal cavity, pelvic cavity

11. a)Describe 3 general characteristics of connective tissue. b)List the categories and subcategories. c)Name the specialized cells of Connective Tissue Proper, Bone, and Cartilage. d)Name another type of cell you might find in areolar tissue. e)Describe the matrix of connective tissue. f)Vitamin C is required for cells to make collagen. Scurvy, a lack of vitamin C, is characterized by receding gums and teeth that become loose in their sockets and fall out. Why do you think that occurs (framing this around the role/s of connective tissue)?

12. Describe the specific types of tissues that contribute to and (if applicable) protein fibers of, and where in the body you might find, the following structures: periosteum, hair follicle, serous membrane, eccrine (sweat) gland, tendon, Stratum Lucidum, superficial fascia.

13. a)Describe 5 general characteristics of epithelial tissue. b)Explain a general role/function of epithelial tissue. c)How do O2 and nutrients reach the cells of an epithelium? d)The hormone insulin and the buffer bicarbonate both come the pancreas. Insulin is an endocrine secretion and bicarbonate is an exocrine secretion. Explain what that means in terms of where these products are destined to go and how they get there. Why am I asking this within an epithelial tissue question?

14. Discuss 3 mechanisms employed by the body for thermoregulation; where appropriate, name specific structures involved. Are thermoregulatory mechanisms examples of negative feedback or positive feedback strategies for maintaining homeostasis? Where are the most superficial capillaries of the integument located?

15. Follow the development of a skin cell, following it from "birth" to death, mentioning the layers it travels through, and (generally) what's happening in those layers. This cell is pigmented with melanin. Where (cell type & layer) did the melanin come from? What's the purpose of pigmenting the cells?

16. You are a biology instructor with a prominent scar on your hand. One of your students asks you how you got this scar. Not realizing your student wanted a simple answer like, "I was shucking a clam for dissection with a scalpel," you explain right from the beginning how your skin responded to the immediate damage and how your dermis and epidermis repaired themselves. What is your explanation? Be sure to include: a)how blood loss is controlled, b) how/why blood flow to the area is increased, c)how the epidermis repairs itself (including the names of the epidermal cells that initiate the repair process), d)how the dermis repairs itself (including the names of the cells that produce the dermal proteins), e)what happens to debris and pathogens that may have been introduced, f)why you had a scab, g)why you now have a scar.

Exam II

17. List and briefly explain 5 functions of bone. Compare & contrast the functions and locations of osteoblasts, osteocytes & osteoclasts.

18. Briefly describe two general differences between the matrix of cartilage & the matrix of bone. In adults, which tissue (cartilage or bone) heals faster, and why?

19. List 5 hormones, 3 vitamins other than vitamin-D, and 3 minerals that affect bone remodeling. Briefly describe how each of the hormones affects bones. What's one other factor (besides hormones, vitamins & minerals) that can affect bone remodeling, and how?

20. Explain 4 similarities between the response to integumental injury and the response to bone injury. Be sure to note similarities between the role of fibroblasts and osteoblasts. Do fibroblasts repair the dermis or the epidermis? What cells repair the epidermis?

21. Choose one synovial joint from those at the end of chapter 9 and describe it using the following criteria:

a) the type of joint (hinge, pivot, etc.), b) the types of movement allowed, c) the bones that articulate at this joint, d) the names of the articulating surfaces of the bones (ex., at the hip joint the HEAD of the femur articulates with the ACETABULUM of the ischium) e) one ligament and f) two muscles involved with the joint.

There will be a .5 point extra credit opportunity for naming the parts of the bones that EITHER your chosen ligament or muscle attaches to (ex., the ulnar collateral ligament of the elbow attaches to the coronoid process of the ulna and the medial epicondyle of the humerus).

22. What's a myofibril? Starting with myofibrils, move outward to the whole muscle and describe the layers of bundling and connective tissues between/surrounding the bundles.

23. Describe the stimulation of a muscle cell by Ach. Start with the release of Ach at the motor end plate and finish with the release of Ca 2+ from terminal cisternae. Be sure to mention any membrane channels that are relevant to the movement of ions. (Don't worry about the specific details of the action potential that we added in the nervous system discussion...that'll be another question). What happens to the Ach after it has exerted its effect? What happens to Ca2+ when action potentials stop arriving?

24. Describe the actual muscle contraction. Be sure to mention the role of ATP. How are sarcomeres returned to their resting length? How is the removal of Ca2+ related to ending of a contraction?

25. You've been typing for hours. a) How do you think the muscles in your hand/forearm are producing ATP? b) State and describe 5 characteristics of the type of muscles fibers (fast, slow, intermediate) you think are supporting your typing and holding your back straight. c) Are all of the muscle fibers in your gluteus maximus at rest? Explain why or why not. d) What nutrient are the resting fibers in your gluteus maximus probably using for energy?

26. A lion comes crashing through your window (you've been typing in Africa and the prey population has been low this year). You leap up, rip the bookcase from the wall and throw it in his path, and sprint as fast as you can but get tired out by the time you reach the kitchen. a) How do you think your quadruceps are producing ATP? b) State and describe 5 characteristics of the type of muscles fibers (fast, slow, intermediate) you think are supporting your sprinting and ripping bookcases from walls. c) Why was the contraction in your biceps stronger as you pulled down the bookcase than it was when you calmly removed a book earlier? d) What nutrient are the contracting fibers in your quadruceps probably using for energy?

27. List each of the neuroglia of the CNS and PNS. Provide 3 functions of astrocytes, and 1 function of each of the others. What is myelin, and why is it important for proper functioning of many neurons?

28. a)Describe what happens with voltage-regulated sodium and potassium channels along an axon during an action potential in a neuron. Mention important voltages and what happens to the Na+ and K+ channels at those important voltages. How do these events affect the movement of Na+ and K+; that is, when are Na+ and K+ allowed to move into and out of the cell through these channels? b) Describe what will happen when an action potential reaches axon terminals.

In your answer, use the terms: depolarization, repolarization, hyperpolarization, threshold, activation gate, inactivation gate.

29. Compare and contrast the role of Ca++ in skeletal muscle contraction vs. neuron neurotransmitter release: where does the Ca++ come from, what causes Ca++ channels to open, what effect Ca++ has, how it's removed. List two hormones involved in the regulation of blood Ca++ and briefly describe their actions (this goes back to the bone chapter).

30. (May be on exam III) a)Describe how a neurotransmitter could cause an EPSP and an IPSP. b)What's the difference between direct and indirect action of neurotransmitters? c)What determines whether a neurotransmitter will be excitatory or inhibitory and whether it will have direct or indirect effects? d)What happens at an axoaxonic synapse (describe and provide one example)? e)Provide 6 examples of specific neurotransmitters including their general action, whether they act directly, indirectly, or both, whether they are excitatory, inhibitory, or both, and where they act (PNS &/or CNS). *I won't ask you to actually provide all six, but questions about specific Nt will probably end up in the MC so I want to make sure you're prepared.

Exam III

31. Briefly describe 2 functions of each of the following: the cerebral cortex, hypothalamus, mesencephalon, pons, medulla. Briefly describe 1 function of each of the following: cerebral nuclei, thalamus, cerebellum, limbic system, reticular formation, white matter. Which of the above are not really a part of the brain, but functional groups incorporating many different parts?

32. a)Diagram AND describe a cross-section through the spinal cord, including spinal nerve roots and the dorsal root ganglia (don't worry about the sympathetic ganglia). Indicate what's going on in the different areas of gray matter (the horns) and ganglia, in terms of what types/parts of neurons are most prominent in each area. Indicate whether information is coming into the CNS or is going out of the CNS in these areas of gray matter. Label which types of neurons are found in each of the roots. Draw the spinal roots so that they end up merging into a mixed spinal nerve. b)Briefly describe white matter.

33. a)Describe the production and circulation of CSF, beginning with the choroid plexuses and ending with the internal jugular vein. Be sure to describe the structure of the choroid plexuses, arachnoid villi and the dura mater (I won't remind you of this on the exam). Be sure to name all of the chambers and spaces that the CSF travels through (only the ones I named in class). b)Name two functions of CSF.

34. What do the cerebral nuclei and cerebellem have in common? In terms of function, how do they differ? Where are the cerebral nuclei located? Describe how the cerebellum exerts its effects: what types of information it receives and from where, what it does with that information and where it sends outgoing messages. Name the spinal sensory pathway that is involved; what type of information does that pathway carry?

35. Remember the lion that crashed through your window? What division of the ANS immediately stepped up when that happened? Describe the path of a neuron from this division, starting from the lateral gray horn of the spinal cord and finishing at a smooth muscle cell lining a blood vessel. In doing so, mention: a) the names of the neurons involved, b) where the neurons synapse with each other (2 possible ganglia), c) what Nt is released from each of the neurons. Briefly describe 6 effects this division has on the body.

Now do the same for the other division!

Obviously the actual exam question wouldn't be this long, but all of this info will show up in some way, shape or form.

36. a) Diagram, label and describe an example simple reflex arc. It can be monosynaptic or polysynaptic, somatic or visceral (your choice). In doing so, Be sure to draw a cross-section of the spinal cord, and indicate where neurons are synapsing. Draw (or write) a tissue/organ that the sensory info could be coming from (for ex, stretch receptors in the stomach), and an effector that the motor commands could be going to (for ex, smooth muscle of the stomach). Draw and label any other structures if appropriate (ex, ganglia). Indicate whether you've chosen a somatic or visceral reflex arc.

b) What's the difference between monosynaptic and polysynaptic reflex arcs?

c) Briefly state a specific example of a somatic reflex arc and a visceral reflex arc (for example: a visceral reflex includes the constriction of pupils in response to bright light).

37. a)What types of stimuli cause EPSPs on nociceptors, thermoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, and chemoreceptors? b)Name the 3 major types of mechanoreceptors, and provide one example of an area in the body where each type is located.

38. (Answer this one at a time, don't even look ahead. It seems confusing but if you just answer each one individually, it will probably go very smoothly!) a) What does it mean if a neuron is cholinergic? Adrenergic? b) What does it mean if a receptor is cholinergic? Adrenergic? c) Are preganglionic neurons of the ANS cholinergic, adrenergic, or both? d) Which division has post-ganglionic fibers that are exclusively cholinergic? In which division are most fibers adrenergic? e) Are the receptors of the ganglionic (post-ganglionic) neurons cholinergic or adrenergic? f) Which type of cholinergic receptor responds to Ach binding by opening Na+ channels immediately? Which type responds by causing longer-term changes in ion permeability? Where would I find each of those cholinergic receptor types? g) What are the subdivisions of adrenergic receptors? h) What effectors are served only by the sympathetic division?

39. Compare and contrast short reflexes vs. long reflexes. Provide an example of each.

40. List 4 specific parts of the brain that are involved in producing motor output. Name the motor pathways we discussed, and explain where the upper and lower neurons of each pathway originates (where the cell body is located). Explain the general differences between the motor pathways, in terms of the types of motor output they primarily control (ie, skilled vs. postural). Briefly review the differences between the basal nuclei and the cerebellum in terms of their influence over motor output. Why does a lack of dopamine result in shakiness?

41. a)Which of the special senses employs chemoreceptors? Photoreceptors? Mechanoreceptors? b)What bone and bone part do the olfactory nerves travel through? c)What's the purpose of the nasal conchae? d)Where (what lining of the eyeball) are photoreceptors located? e)What's the purpose of the auditory ossicles? f)What cranial nerve carries auditory and equilibrium information? g)Know the general purpose/anatomy of: cornea, sclera, lens, iris, retina, pinna, tympanum, cochlea (know this is where auditory info is generated), semicircular canals/vestibule (know this is where equilibrium info is generated), external ear, middle ear, internal ear.