Exam Possible Short Answer (I may change/add questions up to 5 days before an exam, so check back!)

Endocrine
1 . a. Describe one hormone that is ultimately under
the control of the hypothalamus/adenohypophysis. Name the hormone/factor
from the hypothalamus, the hormone from the adenohypophysis, and the final
hormone and where it comes from (kidney, etc). Describe one effect this final
hormone will have on target cells. How do hormones get from the hypothalamus
to the adenohypophysis?

b. A person with symptoms of hypothyroidism (for example, sluggishness and
intolerance to cold) is found to have abnormally low plasma concentrations of
T4, T3, and TSH. After an injection of TRH the plasma concentrations of all
three hormones increase. Where is the site of the defect leading to the
hypothyroidism?

c. Vera is receiving very large doses of a cortisol-like drug to treat her arthritis.
Theoretically, what should happen to her own production/secretion of cortisol (increase or decrease)? What hormone should a drug mimick if you wanted to increase Vera’s production of ACTH?

2. This example has absolutely no basis in reality. If you know how the hormones
can affect their target cells and which use 2nd messengers, you can predict how any
hormone, fake or real, will act. Hormone X is a hormone in the Who species (you
know, the kind that Horton heard and the Grinch wanted to repress). Hormone
X allows the Whos to sing for extended periods of time. It does so by affecting
metabolism in a number of different ways. One of the specific effects Hormone X
has is in muscle cells of the larynx: it stimulates those cells to increase the number
of enzymes involved in ATP production.
a. Let’s say Hormone X is a peptide hormone. Describe how it will affect a
muscle cell of the larynx, starting with its arrival at the target cell and
ending with the production of more active enzyme (be sure to state why
there’s more active enzyme)

b. Now repeat, only this time pretend Hormone X is a steroid hormone.

3 . You are an elk. You’ve just spotted a pack of wolves that is obviously starting to
encircle your herd. You and your herd immediately take off running, with the wolves in
hot pursuit. The wolves follow you for hours until finally one of the elders in your herd
can no longer outpace the wolves. Describe what has happened to you during this time:
a. Briefly describe your Autonomic Nervous System response, including five
effects this will have on your body functions.
b. Name the phases of the stress response, and briefly describe the function
and events of each.
c. Name four hormones that are especially important in the second phase.
Describe the effect each has on the body, and explain how these effects are
beneficial to the situation.
d. Why are the maintenance of blood glucose, and the mobilization of lipids, the
major themes of the long-term response?
e. What will happen if you cannot replenish used up energy sources and
electrolytes?
f. When we get stressed out nowadays, like if you’re up against a deadline to
finish a take-home test, our bodies react as if we were facing a physical threat.
Many of us do not get enough exercise and eat lots of high-calorie foods.
What do you think is a disadvantage of the combination of stress, low exercise,
and high calorie intake? Be specific! Talk about this on the level of hormone
action, cell activity, etc.

4 . Fluffy the puppy was neutered when he was 12 weeks old. At one year of age, Fluffy exhibits many male behaviors that are typical of an unneutered male. Blood samples reveal near normal levels of testosterone. Where’s it coming from? Be specific.

5 . Insulin has a variety of effects on body cells. Specifically, it causes adipocytes to take in fatty acids, and to store them as triglycerides. (A triglyceride is a molecule of glycerine with 3 fatty acids attached. It’s the way cells store fat). It causes hepatocytes to take in glucose and store it as glycogen (glycogen is just a string of glucoses attached together). What are 2 SPECIFIC, intracellular effects insulin might be having on an adipocyte or a hepatocyte to make it react in the way it does? You don't need to know anything more about insulin, hepatocytes or adipocytes than what is in your notes and in this question to answer it.

Blood

1. You’re a reporter at the scene of a disaster. Actually, you’re a really tiny reporter living inside a biology instructor. The disaster is that one of the instructor’s blood vessels has just been sliced by a scalpel. You’ve arrived at the scene immediately.
a. List the 3 phases of hemostasis, and state one event which will happen during EACH phase.
b. How do the first platelets on the scene get stuck/activated?
c. Name one factor released by platelets/endothelial cells that will promote the clotting process.
d. Outline or diagram the biochemical cascade of events that occurs once Factor X is activated.
e. Briefly describe one thing that will aid in the clean-up or control of a clot.

Heart

1. Describe the events of the cardiac cycle: start with all 4 chambers in diastole, before the atria contract. Include what happens with the valves. Be sure to use the terms: End Diastolic Volume, Isovolumetric Contraction Phase, End Systolic volume, Isovolumetric Relaxation. Mention which events correspond with the P wave, QRS complex, and T wave on an ECG.

2. Use logic for these questions; most are not described in the book. They are hypothetical. Think in terms of movement of blood, and oxygenation of blood. a)What would happen if there were not a delay when impulses reach the AV node? b)What would happen if the right atria and ventricle contracted at the same time, and the left atria and ventricle contracted at the same time? c)What would happen if there were an opening between the right and left atria, so that blood could flow between them (hint, look in the back of chapter 21...although you don't need to)? d)What would happen if there were an opening between the right ventricle and left ventricle, so that blood could flow between them (this is, sort of, the case with amphibians)?

3. Define cardiac output in terms of Stroke Volume and Heart Rate. Briefly describe 3 factors that can affect SV and 2 factors that can affect HR.

4. Follow an impulse from the SA node to the Purkinje fibers (just indicate the pathway and name appropriate nodes/bundles). Be sure to indicate when the atria and ventricles contract. Once you get to the Purkinje fibers, describe what will happen to adjacent contractile cells, in terms of ion flow and how it affects contraction and relaxation. Be specific in describing the channels, and mention the terms depolarization, plateau, repolarization, absolute refractory. You do NOT need to mention specific voltage values. How is cardiac muscle prevented from reaching tetany?

Vessels

1. Briefly describe 3 characteristics of each: a) great arteries, b)muscular arteries, c) arterioles, d) capillaries, e) veins. Which is responsible for absorbing blood pressure from the heart? Which is responsible for controlling peripheral blood pressure via vasoconstriction and vasodilation? Which is responsible for controlling blood flow to specific tissues?

2. How is MAP related to flow? Where is MAP read (what vessels), and why does increasing peripheral pressure increase whole body flow (turnover)?

3. Where are the vasomotor centers of the cardiovascular centers located? List the two major types of sensory neurons that communicate with the vasomotor center, and state two places you would find each. For each, briefly explain one stimulus that would cause them to encourage vasoconstriction. What division/s of the ANS control/s blood vessel constriction? Name the neurotransmitter that is used at most vessels, and describe it's effect on those vessels (cause constriction or dilation); do the same for the neurotransmitter that is used at some vessels that lead to skeletal muscle and the brain. What is vasomotor tone?

4. List 4 factors that can affect resistance in blood vessels. How will each then affect pressure? Which of the above factors can be used by the body to make fast adjustments in blood pressure?

5. List 5 hormones that can affect blood pressure, and state how they affect blood pressure based on the factors that affect resistance. Explain how angiotensin-II is activated

6. What's the difference between autoregulation and neural/endocrine control of blood pressure/flow (general)? Describe movement of fluids and solutes at capillaries, using the terms: Capillary Hydrostatic Pressure, Blood Colloid Osmotic Pressure, Net Filtration Pressure. How does lost fluid get returned to the blood? Why would a protein deficiency cause edema?

Lymphatic/Immune

1. List and briefly describe the function of the 3 lymphocytes. Name 2 lymph organs and/or nodes.

2. Briefly describe each of the non-specific defenses. State the 4 signs of inflammation, and explain why they occur.

3. A body cell has been infected by a virus; the virus has entered the body cell and intends to replicate within the cell. a) How will the body cell help to prevent further spread of this virus? b) What class of MHC protein will it use to display viral antigens? c) Which type of T-cell is most likely to respond, and what will it do? d) What other type of lymphocyte deals primarily with infected body cells, and what does it do to those cells? e) Why will a second exposure to this particular pathogen be dealt with more efficiently?

4. A macrophage has just ingested some bacteria that have been introduced into a wound. a) How will it let T-cells & B-cells know that it has encountered this pathogen? b) Which type of T-cell will respond? c) How will a B-cell be fully activated (hint, see "sensitization" and "activation")? d) What are activated B-cells called, and what do they do?

5. Describe how each of the following contributes to body defenses, and state which cell/s release them, or where they come from: a) Interferons, b) Complement, c) Interleukin-1 (just name the one role I mentioned), d) Perforins, e) Antibodies, f) Histamine, g)Thymosins

Respiratory

1. If a bronchiole has low levels of O2, would you expect the arteriole leading to that alveolar sac to dilate or constrict? What will happen if the bronchiole has high levels of CO2 (be careful, CO2 doesn't affect the arteriole but I won't remind you of this on the exam)? Why do the above responses make sense, in terms of efficiency of gas exchange?

2. What factors affect O2-Hb affinity? Be sure to state HOW they affect it (increase or decrease). Why do these effects make sense in terms of O2 pick up and delivery?

3. Where are the respiratory rhythmicity centers? Which "group" controls basic inspiratory patterns during restful breathing? How will an increase in CO2, or a decrease in O2, affect breathing rate and depth? Where are the chemoreceptors that monitor blood O2 & CO2 located? Where are the chemoreceptors that monitor CSF CO2 levels located? What substance do those chemoreceptors ACTUALLY respond to?

4. a)Describe the respiratory membrane (list its components). b) Why does air move into the lungs during inspiration? c) Why does O2 enter the blood from alveoli, while CO2 leaves the blood and enters alveoli (the answer should be short and simple)? d) Likewise, why does O2 leave the blood and enter tissues, while CO2 leaves the tissues and enters the blood? e) What happens to MOST (~70%) of the CO2 that enters the blood from tissues (show the reaction, name the enzyme and state what happens to the H+)?

Digestive

1. Discuss the phases of stomach activity. In doing so, be sure to mention a) the general purpose/events of each phase, b) the stimulus for each phase (that is, what neural/endocrine messages cause the events of each phase), c) which types of cells secrete the hormones mentioned from part b above, d) for the last phase, choose only one hormone and be able to state what stimulates its release (ie, fats in chyme stimulate CCK), what effects it has on stomach activity and activity of other organs. e) mention which phase is not marked by activity of the enteric nervous system.

2. Discuss the layers of folding of the small intestine. Name each layer, starting from the largest, visible layer and ending with the smallest layer. What's the purpose of all the folding? Which layer of folding is composed of the actual absorptive surfaces? List the vessels housed in a villus. How do fat-soluble nutrients get to the blood? Water soluble? Which organ do water-soluble nutrients go straight to, and how do they get there? List several functions of hepatocytes.

3. Go through each of the organs of the GI tract and state which nutrients (starch, triglycerides, proteins, disaccharides, peptides) are being chemically digested in each organ. List each of the inactive proteases, state where they are made (and, when appropriate, name the cell type that makes them) and how they are activated. Which organ of the GI tract is each found in? Be sure to also name the active forms.

4. Compare and contrast the roles of: a) bile and lipase; and b) HCl and proteases. Be sure to DESCRIBE emulsification.

Metabolism

1. (This is a series of very short answer questions) List the processes glucose will go through to produce ATP. Which occur in the cytosol? In mitochondria? Which is/are anaerobic? Aerobic? How many ATPs are produced per glucose, for each process? Which process releases the most H? When would pyruvates get "backed up" and not be able to continue on in the process? What would happen to them? When would acetyl coAs get "backed up" and not be able to continue on? What would happen to them?

2. (This is a series of very short answer questions) What happens during glycolysis (overall reaction)? Why is CO2 produced in the next, intermediate step? What happens in the first step of the TCA cycle (what molecules join up, and what molecule is produced)? What molecules pick up H? Where do they take the H? What happens to the H at the beginning of the ETC? What happens to the electrons? What is the energy released by electrons used to do? What ends up happening with all those H+ (name the enzyme and state what the enzyme does, and where it gets the energy to do so)? What is the "final electron acceptor?" Why is water a biproduct of aerobic respiration? Why do we need O2?

3. Describe the transport and distribution of lipids, describing each of the lipoproteins (including chylomicrons), their relative densities, where they're made, and what they do. Why are LDLs considered "bad?" Why are HDLs considered "good?" What's one way you can get rid of cholesterol (explain how/why it works)? Why do you need some LDLs?

Urinary

1. Describe the filtration membrane of a renal corpuscle. In what nephron tubule does most reabsorption occur? What substance is reabsorbed from the thin segment of the loop of Henle? What effect does ANP have on GFR? Why? Answer the same for Angiotensin II and sympathetic influence. What cells secrete renin?

2. Describe how water is reabsorbed in the loop of Henle. How do ADH and Aldosterone increase water reabsorption (and what sections do they affect)?What effect does each of the following have on the cells of the DCT and collecting ducts: ADH, aldosterone, PTH?

3. What are the 3 major ways that blood pH is maintained (just list them)? Which is more temporary and which are more permanent? What are the 2 major buffers? What are two things the kidneys can do to maintain pH if blood pH starts to drop?

4. Describe the juxtaglomerular apparatus of a nephron. Describe how autoregulation continuously maintains a relatively constant Net Filtration Pressure. Explain when Renin-Angiotensin II and Atrial Natriuretic Peptide would be released, and what effect each would have on the juxtaglomerular apparatus and NFP. What cells secrete renin? What would happen if the NFP were too high? Too low?

Electrolyte/pH

1. Discuss Respiratory Compensation for pH balance. How are H+ rid at the lungs? How does respiration change in response to reduced pH? Increased pH? What will happen to your blood pH if you hypoventilate? Hyperventilate?

2. What are the 3 major ways that blood pH is maintained (just list them)? Which is more temporary and which are more permanent? What are the 2 major buffers? What are two things the kidneys can do to maintain pH if blood pH starts to drop?

Reproductive/Development

1. Describe the birth and maturation of a sperm (spermatogenesis and spermiogenesis). Describe the hormone system supporting these processes. What's one function of sustentacular cells?

2. Describe the birth and maturation of an egg (oogenesis and ovulation). Choose 2 hormones and describe one function each serves in these processes. What's one function of follicle cells?

3. Explain the ovarian and uterine cycles, mentioning the events of each phase and how long each phase lasts. Describe the hormone system supporting these events, being sure to mention the effect each hormone has. Why is it important that these cycles are coordinated?

4. Describe the events of early embryonic development, using the terms: cleavage, blastocyst, syncytial trophoblast, inner cell mass, gastrulation, endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm, placenta. Which part of the blastocyst will give rise to a person?